RESEARCH ON LANGUAGE ACQUISITION : SUBTITLED ANIME

    Language acquisition is one of several studies on the subject of language. Acceptance of language refers to how a person learns a language from its earliest stages to its eventual ability to speak and communicate in it. Everyone learns a language in their own unique way. One of the various methods is to use the subtitles of a film. 

Smaller countries import a large number of television programs from abroad. The imported programs are generally either dubbed or subtitled in the local language. The debate between dubbing and subtitling has been settled by considerations of speed and cost; most countries with a smaller language community typically apply to subtitles due to their lower cost and easy translation. In most countries in the world where subtitling is being applied, the same rules of thumb are used for timing the subtitles. Two lines of text, each with a maximum of 32 characters and spaces, can be used at a time. If there are two lines of 32 characters and spaces each, the subtitle is displayed for 6 s. Shorter subtitles are time-scheduled proportionally according to this 6-s rule. Nobody seems to know how this 6-rule was arrived at.

With subtitled movies, there are at least three different input channels: the visual image, the soundtrack（including THE voices） and the subtitles (a translation of the voices). The text lines of the subtitles should, ideally, be completely overlapping with the translated information of the soundtrack. Most imported programs in Belgium are in English, a language which is fairly well known by the adult Belgian participants; anecdotal evidence further suggests that translation errors in the subtitles are almost immediately noticed.

d’Ydewalle, Van Rensbergen, and Pollet (1987）showed that Dutch-speaking subjects were able to switch effortlessly between the visual image and the subtitle. Moreover, the time spent in processing the subtitle did not change when reading the subtitle was made either more important for understanding the program (by switching off the soundtrack）or less compelling (when the subject knows the language very well）. Therefore, it was concluded that reading the subtitle at its onset presentation is more or less obligatory; it is unaffected by major contextual factors such as the availability of the soundtrack and important episodic characteristics of actions in the movie.

Research Questions

Regarding the rationale above, this research is formulated to answer the following questions:

1.      How far the subtitled anime leads us to enhance our language acquisition?

2.  What are the scientific factors that caused the enhancement of language acquisition using subtitled anime?

The Objectives of The Study

In the mater of the research questions, this study is aimed to attain the following objectives of the study:

1.        To depict the effectiveness of subtitled anime can lead us to enhance our language acquisition.

2.        To describe the scientific factors that occur in the enhancement of language acquisition using subtitled anime.

The Scope of The Study

This study focuses on showing how subtitled anime could affect the process of language acquisition. Moreover, this research uses the Psycholinguistic to determine how far the media can help people to acquire The language while it also describes the scientific factors that influence language-processing and language acquisition.

The data source directly takes from the interview and questioners with some otaku and their students using the worksheet of words. The worksheet of words is used in order to distinguish how quick they can acquire The language.

The Clarification of The Terms

There are several terms used in this study. The following lists clarify the terms which are used for a more comprehensive understanding of the study:

1.        Anime

Anime is characteristic of contemporary media in its interconnected webs of commercial and cultural activities that reach across industries and national boundaries. As Ian Condry stated in his book entitled The Soul of Anime (2013):

Anime (‘‘ah-nee-may’’) refers to Japanese animated film and television, but the worlds of anime extend well beyond what appears on the screen.

2.        Otaku

According to Lawrence Eng (2001), an expert on otaku and otaku culture both in the US and in Japan, an otaku is a “diehard fan/enthusiast/expert of something (not just anime, but anything)”. The term is most frequently used to refer to people interested in anime and anime-related media such as video games and manga because they are the community responsible for coining the term when referring to themselves.

3.        Subtitle

In watching audiovisual material, there are often three channels of information available to the viewer all conveying the same content: the auditory channel (sound), the verbal-visual channel (subtitles) and the nonverbal visual channel (visuals). Baltova (1999, p. 35) notes that these three channels combined might well create a better environment for learning than exposure to unsubtitled video or written text accompanied by visual information.

4.         The language acquisition

Several authors explicitly pointed to differences in language acquisition between adults and children（ Lambert, Gardner, Olton, & Tunstall, 1970; Lambert & Klineberg, 1967; Larsen & Smalley, 1972; Macnamara, 1973） , leading to the conclusion that especially children are successful in acquiring a language by being exposed to the language in an informal context, whereas the effect of such an informal contact is usually more limited in adults.

THEORIES

This chapter reviews the theories related to the present study. It explains and tells about the previous studies of language processing and comprehending.

Anime

The Japanese term anime is an apocopation of anime ¯shon, which is transliterated from English. In Japanese, both terms denote all types of animation. In English, anime refers to Japanese animation; the term is used for both the singular and the plural. In 1963, famed manga artist and animator Osamu Tezuka released Tetsuwan Atomu (Astro Boy in the US, also 1963), winning the hearts of millions of youth. To maintain the balance sheet at Mushi Productions, Tezuka pioneered Japanese limited animation of a kind even worse than Hanna-Barbera’s.

American production companies typically removed unAmerican speech as well as all but the scantest of references to the original Japanese production teams. Fred Ladd, who produced the American versions of Astro Boy (1963; airing primetime on NBC in the same era as The Flintstones and The Jetsons), Gigantor (1965), Kimba the White Lion (1965), and Speed Racer (1967), was notorious for changing names and editing plotlines. There is little doubt that Ladd contributed to the short-lived success of Japanese animation in the 1960s.

Nevertheless, pressure to sanitize American children’s television in the 1970s paralleled dramatic advances in violence and sexual content in Japanese animation, for example, with Go Nagai’s Devilman (1972). Noboru Ishiguro, the director of Space Battleship Yamato, wrote in 1997: ‘There are strict rules against [American animated] violence . . . Japanese television, which does not have (and, in fact, has never had) these sorts of restrictions, has traditionally provided much more room to develop various sorts of expression’. As Ian Condry stated in his book entitled The Soul of Anime (2013):

Anime (‘‘ah-nee-may’’) refers to Japanese animated film and television, but the worlds of anime extend well beyond what appears on the screen.

Anime is characteristic of contemporary media in its interconnected webs of commercial and cultural activities that reach across industries and national boundaries. In the United States and elsewhere, anime fan conventions draw tens of thousands of participants, many dressed as their favorite characters. Anime clubs on college and high school campuses are becoming as common as sushi in American supermarkets. A vast array of licensed merchandise depends on anime characters as well, characters often born in manga (comic books), but also in videogames, light novels, and even tv commercials. Scholars, fans, and media observers are producing a growing body of literature aimed at extending and deepening our understandings of the diverse field of Japanese animation.

Anime is a success in the sense that it became a sustainable form of creative expression and a style recognized as ‘‘Japanese’’ that went global without the push of major corporations (at least at first) and thus represents a kind of globalization from below. In other words, anime demonstrates the diversity of actors involved in the transformation of a smallscale, niche cultural form into something that reaches wider audiences and influences people around the world.

Subtitled anime

In watching audiovisual material, there are often three channels of information available to the viewer all conveying the same content: the auditory channel (sound), the verbal-visual channel (subtitles), and the nonverbal visual channel (visuals). Baltova (1999, p. 35) notes that these three channels combined might well create a better environment for learning than exposure to unsubtitled video or written text accompanied by visual information. Bianchi and Ciabattoni (2008, p. 86) argue that the semantic match between the verbal channels and the visual channel, the type of subtitles, and the proficiency level of the learners all play a role in determining the outcome of watching the material.

Neuman and Koskinen (1992, p. 96) argue that the combination between the visuals and the audio material can help children establish relationships between words and meaning, with the contextual clues provided in the visual channel thus facilitating vocabulary acquisition. Sherman (2003, p. 16) argues that the eye is more powerful than the ear and therefore will dominate if the students are offered both readings in the form of subtitles and listening in form of the soundtrack. Based on this the learners will read rather than listen even if they have no real need for the subtitles. In terms of the type of subtitles, d’Ydewalle and Van de Poel (1999) argue that native language subtitles are particularly informative due to the fact that along with the visual and contextual clues and the audio material the viewers are presented with text translation of the audio.

Vanderplank (1988, p. 275), however, found that learners benefit from target language subtitles in that the students learn to develop strategies such as switching back and forth between the audio material and the subtitles or by finding a strategy allowing them to process the audio, the visuals, and the text channel simultaneously. Zarei and Rashvand (2011, p. 618), distinguishing between verbatim and non-verbatim subtitles as well as the between native and target language subtitles, found that native language subtitles, whether verbatim or non-verbatim, were of most use in terms of vocabulary production. They also found that non-verbatim subtitles were more facilitating in terms of vocabulary comprehension regardless of whether they were in the native or target language.

Bianchi and Ciabattoni (2008, p. 87) in their study concluded that while beginners, in general, seemed to take more advantage of subtitles in their native language, more advanced learners benefitted more from target language subtitles – a view which corresponds to that presented by Danan (2004). Bianchi and Ciabattoni (2008) argue that the reason for this difference may be that native language subtitles are automatically processed, whereas target language subtitles require more advanced knowledge of the language in order to be processed without interfering with other involved cognitive processes such as listening and taking stock of the visual content.

The automatic reading of subtitles has been proved in many eye movement experiments (Danan, 2004; d’Ydewalle & Van de Poel, 1999), and the automatic reading should thus be taking place independently of the learners’ familiarity with the reading of subtitles, their target language proficiency, and the availability of the audio material (d’Ydewalle & Van de Poel, 1999, p. 228). In contrast to Bianchi and Ciabattoni’s (2008) conclusion, however, d’Ydewalle and Gielen (1992) argue that this automatic reading of the subtitles does not prevent the audio material from being processed as well, and d’Ydewalle and Van de Poel (1999, p. 228) claim that the two are in fact processed almost in parallel.

The learners’ attention should thus be divided between the two channels of input in accordance with the needs of the learners, with the reading of subtitles most frequently occurring when the information to be processed is complex (d’Ydewalle & Gielen, 1992, p. 425). Mitterer and McQueen (2009) showed that target language subtitles can also facilitate language speech perception. They argue that the reason for the difficulties in understanding a language is the unusual mappings between words and sounds in The language (Mitterer & McQueen, 2009, p. 1). Based on the effects of lexically-guided retuning they argue that the use of subtitles in the target language can increase the learners’ understanding of the spoken language.

The use of target language subtitles helped the perception of the spoken language, something which is in line with the findings of Vanderplank (1988) who showed that target language subtitles made “fast, authentic speech and unfamiliar accents” (p. 275) much easier to understand. According to Mitterer and McQueen (2009), target language subtitles can facilitate speech perception by indicating to the learners through lexically-guided retuning what words and sounds are being uttered by complementing the uttered speech orthographically.

Whereas target language subtitles provided lexical information supporting the target language speech perception, Mitterer and McQueen (2009) also found that native language subtitles appeared to create negative lexical inference as the experience of processing two languages simultaneously caused the participants to perform worse than the ones who were exposed to the audiovisual material with target language subtitles. Danan (2004) argues that target language subtitles can also facilitate listening comprehension in the second language. Markham (1989, as cited in Danan, 2004, p. 69) found that university-level ESL (English as a second language) students performed significantly better on general comprehension when exposed to audiovisual material with target language subtitles than the participants that were not exposed to target language subtitles.

How does the language acquisition Rendered in Subtitles

Several authors explicitly pointed to differences in language acquisition between adults and children（Lambert, Gardner, Olton, & Tunstall, 1970; Lambert & Klineberg, 1967; Larsen & Smalley, 1972; Macnamara, 1973, leading to the conclusion that especially children are successful in acquiring a language by being exposed to the language in an informal context, whereas the effect of such an informal contact is usually more limited in adults. In the context of a first-language acquisition, the notion of critical period is applied（Lenneberg, 1967）, suggesting that children who do not start to acquire a language by the age of 12 will never succeed in achieving normal language proficiency afterward, even with extensive language training. For second- or foreign-language acquisition, preference is given to the more moderate notion of a sensitive period, which implies that after that period foreign-language acquisition can still take place to some degree, though not in the same way and/or not to the same extent as before the age of 12.

By extending the findings of d’Ydewalle and Pavakanun（ 1995, 1997） and Pavakanun and d’ Ydewalle（ 1992), d’Ydewalle and Van de Poel（ 1999） investigated implicit foreign-language acquisition in children. To determine not only the possibilities but also the boundaries and limits of foreign-language acquisition in a context like watching subtitled television, the tests involved vocabulary, morphology, and syntax.

The first step in foreign-language acquisition is mastering new words, and this should be apparent in tests on vocabulary. Further steps involve the acquisition of the morphology and syntax of the foreign language; we expected such an acquisition only to occur after some formal learning of the foreign language. Therefore, the study included children before and after formal learning of one foreign language（ French） was started at school. By choosing French and Danish as foreign languages（ whereas the first language for all participants was Dutch） , the effect of first- and foreign-language similarity could be investigated at the same time（ Danish being more similar to Dutch）.

Finally, using different age groups may give insight into the development of children’s implicit language-acquisition capacities and could contribute to our understanding about the existence of a sensitive period for foreign-language acquisition. The study showed real but limited foreign-language acquisition by children watching a subtitled movie. We did not find evidence for a sensitive language-acquisition period: There was not more acquisition by the children in the present study than by the adults in the former studies, and again, acquisition was largely restricted to the vocabulary. Despite the assumption that providing subtitles could enhance foreign language processing, and the theory that children would be more prone to acquire a foreign language in an implicit way, our subsequent research on implicit language acquisition by watching subtitled television almost always led to the conclusion that adults performed equally well or even better than children.

In order to explain why children don’t show more language acquisition in such a situation, the following studies investigated the ongoing processing of subtitled television programs, and whether this processing is different in children, as compared with the processing by the adults. In studies on the language acquisition, the best results are obtained with reversed subtitling; that is, when the soundtrack contains the spoken message in the native language, and the foreign language is presented in the subtitles（ d’Ydewalle & Pavakanun, 1995, Experiment 2; d’Ydewalle & Pavakanun, 1997; d’Ydewalle & Van de Poel, 1999; Holobow, Lambert, & Sayegh, 1984; Lambert, Boehler, & Sidoti, 1981; Lambert & Holobow, 1984; Pavakanun & d’Ydewalle, 1992; for an exception, see d’Ydewalle & Pavakanun, 1995, Experiment 1).

As reading subtitles is almost mandatory, the foreign language with reversed subtitles is being processed; in standard subtitling, there is no guarantee that the foreign language in the soundtrack is being attended by children. In countries where most television programs are subtitled, young children have a preference for dubbed movies（ the original soundtrack being replaced by a spoken translation in the native language）, instead of watching the original movie with subtitles; adult viewers, on the other hand, strongly prefer subtitling of the original movie（ d’Ydewalle, Muylle, & Van Rensbergen, 1985）.

Accordingly, there are some doubts whether the children do indeed pay attention to the spoken foreign language in the soundtrack. The experiment（ d’Ydewalle & Van de Poel, 2002） investigated the attention allocation over the two sources of linguistic information while watching a subtitled television program. More precisely, the question was whether children make the effort to process a foreign spoken soundtrack when the native language is available in the subtitles. Following Sohl（ 1989）, the dual-task methodology was again applied. The basic assumption is that an individual has available at any time a fixed amount of resources to perform different tasks. The more resources are needed for one task, the fewer resources are available for a second task, which results in a delay of response or performance on the second task.

By looking at response times on the second task, conclusions can then be drawn as to the processing demands of the primary task. The primary task of the participants was simply to watch a movie. At the same time, they had to respond as quickly as possible to a flash of light（ which was accompanied by a beep）, by pressing a button key in front of them. The light flashes（ and beeps） were presented when either image alone, image and sound, image and subtitling or all three channels together were present. By measuring reaction times on that second task, conclusions are inferred about the number of resources that were required to process the different information sources of the primary task. The main interest of the experiment was to find out if people, and children in particular, show an attention pattern that could allow for incidental foreign language acquisition while watching subtitled television programs.

More specifically, are they able to process a foreign spoken soundtrack as well as to read subtitles in the native language at the same time? The experiment gave evidence that attention is indeed paid to the subtitles: Reaction times in the conditions with subtitles were slower than in the conditions without subtitles. Furthermore, there is evidence that the soundtrack is processed as well: Again, reaction times were slower in the conditions with sound than in the conditions without.

However, the effects of subtitles and soundtrack on the reaction times were not simply additive, despite their main effects, and not their interaction, being significant. When no soundtrack was available, there was an average increase of 25 ms by adding subtitles; when the soundtrack was available, the average increase by adding subtitles was only 7 ms suggesting that no more processing is being done when both subtitles and soundtrack are available than when only the soundtrack is available.

Similarly, when no subtitles were available, there was an average increase of 45 ms by adding the soundtrack; when the subtitles were available, the average increase by adding the soundtrack was only 27 ms. Therefore, it is not clear what happened when both subtitles and soundtrack were available. One possibility is that different pools of resources were allocated for reading and listening; combining both processes can be then done without additional slowing down of the reaction times. On the other hand, it could also be argued that there is a limit in the available
resources. When both information sources（ sound and subtitles） are available, a selection then needs to be made. From our previous studies（for an overview, see d’Ydewalle & Gielen, 1992） , we do know that reading the subtitles is almost mandatory, also among children Grade 4, and that this reading is a highly automated behavior.

Moreover, the subtitles here were in the native language; accordingly, this information was easier to process than the content of the soundtrack. Therefore, it seems reasonable to assume that when the subtitles and the soundtrack were given, participants’ attention was primarily directed to the subtitles, possibly ignoring the soundtrack to a certain extent.
In summary, the absence of the additive effects of subtitles and soundtrack could be due either to the availability of sufficient resources for processing both sources of information independently, or to an allocation of attention only to the subtitles when both sources are available.

The observed absence of additive effects among younger children could be due to an attentional process of ignoring the soundtrack. This could eventually explain why d’Ydewalle and Van de Poel（ 1999） did not find more foreign-language acquisition among younger children as compared to adults, despite children’s superior capacity for implicit language acquisition. Older children may have sufficient resources available to process both sources of information. To investigate whether the verbal message of a soundtrack in a foreign language is processed, the participants of our next study（ d’Ydewalle & Van de Poel, 2002） first watched a foreign spoken movie and thereafter were tested on the recognition of words and sentences from the tape: If the foreign language was being processed, there should be at least some recognition of words or sentences just presented.

Previous experiments on the same issue（ d’Ydewalle &
Pavakanun, 1995, 1997; d’Ydewalle & Van de Poel, 1999; Pavakanun & d’Ydewalle, 1992） used recognition tests, often without great success, but they always used tapes on which speakers other than the speakers in the movie spoke the test items to be recognized: The words and sentences already had to be captured or understood at a level higher than pure auditory recognition. In the present experiment, we cut words and sentences to be recognized directly from the movie; these target items were then mixed with words and sentences from other parts of the movie, which participants did not see. To find out whether the availability of subtitles limits the processing of the soundtrack, the video was showed either with or without subtitles.

Since children’s reading skills and overall mental capacity are not yet fully developed, they probably need more time to process the subtitles. This might explain why they spend more time in the native subtitles then adults do. However, it is less obvious why the difference between adults and children disappeared when the subtitles are provided in a foreign language. In this case, children will probably notice that it is too hard for them to read and process the subtitles in the foreign language and might therefore mainly ignore them. In adults however, the difference between the standard and the reversed subtitling condition is rather surprising, since reading in adults is a highly automated process.

Therefore one would expect them to give equal attention to all subtitles, independently of the language in which they are presented. Apparently however, this is not the case. Vanachter, De Bruycker, and d’Ydewalle（ 2002） studied the amount of attention allocated toward image, soundtrack and subtitles, while watching subtitled television, under both standard and reversed subtitling conditions. The double task paradigm was used again. The primary task was simply to watch a subtitled television program. At the same time, participants had to respond as quickly as possible when a beep + flash occurred, by pressing a button key in front of them.

These stimuli occurred when either only image, image and sound, image and subtitles or all three channels together were present. With adults, clearly adding subtitles did not produce costs: Reaction times were not slower with either Dutch subtitles（ standard subtitling） or Swedish subtitles（ reversed subtitling） . On the other hand, the soundtrack did produce in both cases（ standard and reversed subtitling） a cost, suggesting strongly that the soundtrack was being processed in both cases. While the general pattern of findings with adults did not differ in the standard and reversed subtitling, there were major differences with children.

In standard subtitling, there was basically an additive effect of the presence of Dutch subtitles and the Swedish soundtrack, suggesting again that the foreign soundtrack was being processed. However, with reversed subtitling, reaction times were unaffected by the Swedish subtitles but were considerably slowed down by the Dutch soundtrack: Clearly, children attempted to follow the movie by listening to the soundtrack in their native language but skipped reading the foreign subtitles.

To find out whether the availability of native subtitles limits the processing of the foreign spoken soundtrack, the standard movie was shown either with or without subtitles. The condition with reversed subtitling was similar. In this condition words and sentences were cut from the subtitles in stead of the soundtrack, and all items were presented visually on a television screen. To investigate whether the presence of a native spoken soundtrack limits the processing of the subtitles in the foreign language, the movie was shown either with or without the native spoken soundtrack.

Most interesting was the finding that in adults the availability of a Dutch spoken soundtrack has a rather unfavorable influence on attention allocation toward the foreign subtitles. Also in children, less sentences of the foreign subtitling were recognized when a Dutch spoken soundtrack is provided. However, among the young participants the effect was not significant.

Still, it is interesting to mention that children only performed better than chance level in the reversed condition without a Dutch spoken soundtrack available. Thus, it seems that both children and adults showed a tendency to ignore the foreign subtitling when also a Dutch spoken
soundtrack was available. This is in agreement with the findings of the eye-movements recording study by De Bruycker and d’Ydewalle（ in press） .

They found that under reversed subtitling conditions less time was spend in the subtitling area then under standard conditions, that less
words were fixated in the reversed condition, and that the average time before shifting to the foreign subtitles was significantly longer then the average time before shifting to the native subtitles. However, they only recorded eye movements when both subtitles and soundtrack were available. Given our own results, eye movements recording when watching a movie with only foreign subtitles available, and no native soundtrack, might yield different results. In contrast with the findings of d’Ydewalle and Van de Poel（ 2002, Experiment 2） , we did not observe an effect of the availability of Dutch in the standard condition. In their experiment Grade 4 children performed worse on the word recognition test when the native language was made available in the subtitles.

In the new experiment, children never performed better then chance level in the standard condition. This might be due to a lack of familiarity with the foreign language we used. In d’Ydewalle and Van de Poel（ 2002） the movie contained a German spoken soundtrack. German is obviously more similar to Dutch and also sounds more familiar to us then the Swedish language. Recognizing spoken words and sentences in such an unfamiliar language might just be too hard for children.

Adults performed significantly better then children in the standard condition. As in d’ Ydewalle and Van de Poel（ 2002） , their performance was not influenced by the presence of native subtitles. In contrast to children, who showed an overall poor performance, they seemed to posses a mental processing capacity that required them to attend both information channels, at least partly or alternatively.

The Previous Study

Generally, the previous reseaches are studying about the cultural rendering in a subtitiled movie and so as how the subtitled movie can perform a good way in order to acquire the language, whether it is the first language, the second language or the foreign language. In this paper the researcher wants to deliver on how the subtitled anime can enhance the language acquisition and describes its factors hat occur while in the process of foreign language acquisition through subtitled anime.

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