RACISM: TYPES AND DISCRIMINATION

Racism

According to the psychiatric association in Maher (2012), with the admission of racism and racial discrimination influences the mental health by reducing the self-image, faith and optimized the mental function. There should be an effort to omit racism and racial discrimination by involving the appreciation to respect multiculturalism and diversity. Racism can be done and happened to anyone, especially in multicultural countries.

According to Fredrickson (2002), Racism is often used in a loose and unreflective way to describe the hostile or negative feelings of one ethnic group or "people" toward another and the actions resulting from such attitudes. Sometimes the antipathy of one group toward another is expressed and acted upon with a single-mindedness and brutality that go far beyond the group-centered prejudice and snobbery that seem to constitute an almost universal human failing. From the description above, racism can be concluded as a discrimination against a particular ethnicity because of a difference such as, color, religion , ideology etc. which occurred in the 19th and early 20th centuries, in the United States of America and Germany, a victims of racism in America and Germany towards blacks peoples and Jewish people, who were supported by the political element at the time. Racism can occur because of the assumption that an ethnic is higher more than other ethnic. A culmination of the issue of racism is in the 20th century, in the South of American the legislation to limit the activities of Africans, they assume that Africans have the lowest caste.

Balibar (2011) states that Racism is a true “total social phenomenon” inscribes itself in practices (forms of violence, contempt, intolerance, humiliation and exploitation), in discourses and representations which are so many intellectual elaborations of the phantasm of prophylaxis or segregation (the need to purify the social body, to preserve identity from all forms of mixing, interbreeding or invasion) and which are articulated around stigmata of otherness (name, skin color, religious practices). Therefore it can be concluded that process is based on the history of the past especially when  a revolution in France, the phenomenon is based on the political element, because there is a difference from one ethnic with other ethnic , the practice of racism is very unfair to the victims, the ethnic minority must become victims of discrimination from the ethnic majority. Racism is a very frightening doctrine in the world, which is very detrimental to a victim. A victim of acts of racism is attacking victims physically, psychologically and mentally violence. The discrimination that occurs against a victim will make the victim trauma for a long time. Victims of racism no longer have a right to value in society.

 Leach (2000, p.449)  states that Racism is unrelated to contemporary attitudes. Purportedly, a new form of racism, one which relies upon a belief in cultural difference has become a more acceptable basis for such attitudes. an appropriate empirical assessment of racism (both `old' and `new') depends upon clear conceptualization and operationalization, and attention to both mean-level expression and explanatory value in structural equation models. Racism occurs because of cultural differences from one ethnic to another ethnic, the study is brave racism that occurred in the European continent, precisely in French, England, Dutch, and Western Germany. Racism is closely related to the attitude of the majority ethnic toward minorities in a country, cultural differences which each culture has its own values to be the basic standard of judgments.

All in all, the researcher conclude that racism is such a frightening doctrine because it is discriminate particular ethnicity based on the race, color, religion, ideology and any other factors which are supposed to be respectful to the multiculturalism and diversity in any group of social. This could harm people who become the victim of racism because it could damage them psychologically and physically.

Types Of Racism

Maher (2012) grouped racism into three kinds, based on the acts and victims, as well as the effect of both sides: The first kind of racism is that individual racism, that is actions which underestimate others based on the race, by ignoring someone’s existence and hurting someone’s feeling. According to Maher (2012), each type of racism has its own characteristics and is divided into several more specific types. Individual racism is done individually without involving the other aspects or any other people, yet it is done individually. There are three kinds of individual racism, they are underestimated, ignore and dirty talks.

Underestimate, according to the Cambridge Dictionary, is defined as to fail to guess or understand the real cost, size, difficulty, etc. of something. For example, The influence of the media should never be underestimated. From this sentence, we should not see that the media has no influence at all because the power of media is much bigger than ever. It could drive people’s opinion towards something, such as the presidential election that happened in Indonesia lately. Ignore, according to the Cambridge Dictionary, is defined as to intentionally not listen or give attention to. For example, Safety regulations are being ignored by company managers in the drive to increase profits. In this sentence, mostly the company that runs in transportation are ignoring the safety regulation that really important for the clients who buy the product, but keeping to think about the profit they will get. Meanwhile dirty talk or talk dirty, according to Cambridge Dictionary, is to describe sexual acts to another person using rude words. Dirty talks are usually for personal usage, which is not everyone can accept the words that said by someone, instead they are going to be mad. For example, show me your big ass. It is to be sure that when someone said this, s/he wants to have sex with somebody else and this words would not be said to the stranger, but to someone who has a close relationship with them. These kinds of individual racism are seen from the scene which is captured at every time of the movie. However, the captures completed with the visual information, dialogue transcript and the length of the scene based on the race movie.

The second is in the form of actions that shows enmity to someone else, physically attack or even psychologically attack towards other people, which called as micro-aggression. This type is an action which forms someone's characteristic become weak and depends on someone else. this typical racism can abandon people to keep playing the role in society as a lower level than everyone else, and at the end of the day impacts to their moral degradation.

Also, Maher (2012) classified the micro-aggression into two other specifications, they are psychologically attacked and physically attacked. Psychologically attack, according to the Cambridge Dictionary, is defined as a violent act intended to hurt or damage someone or something into their Psychology, including hate speech and teasing someone in order to make them feel small, down and unworthy in the society. Hate speech is a statement intended to demean and brutalize another, or the use of cruel and derogatory language or gestures on the basis of real or alleged membership in a social group. For example, The Palestinians are beasts walking on two legs. This sentence shows the feeling of someone who hates the Palestinians and supposed they try to influence others to feel the same.  Meanwhile, Teasing is to laugh at someone or say unkind things about them, either because you are joking or because you want to upset them. In this case, someone who teasing others is aimed to upset them. For example, OOO! Carmen's got a BOYfriend! This statement shows that they don't believe that Carmen has a boyfriend, but they try to make a joke with it and make Carmen upset.

Meanwhile, the physical attack includes the actions that involved physical violence, such as hitting, kicking, tearing out the hair and any other violence in order to keep someone in the feel of contemptible.  For example, the security or bodyguard will attack anyone who can threaten their boss or someone who they cover for, by hitting, kicking or any other outbreaks of violence.

Besides that, there is another type of racism which is proposed by Maher (2012), that is structural or institutional racism. This racism includes the role of the company or an organization to the members or employees. In this part, racism belongs to the discrimination based on the race in giving services to others. That is not professional and one of the unfair-actions to the minority. Trade Union Congress in Maher (2012) has noted the effects of institutional racism. The victims claim that there is an isolated feeling at work, being ignored, or fired. They explain how racism turns their behavior, for example, hate and underestimate themselves. Further, racism turns into the discrimination phase when the power is used to act based on the racial prejudice in order to control, override, and stretch a point of an individual based on the race.

At last, the structural or institutional racism (Maher, 2012) is defined as the racism that occurred the people in institution and discriminates someone or some group in the structural to have limited access and rights. This kind of racism injures the discriminated people to have the same rights as another especially to have a higher position in any institution. This is mostly still happened in a company or organization. For example, black people could not get any higher position in a company, but they are only servants or any lower position than white people. Another example is that the “low” students cannot get the same opportunity to take the difficult theme to be researched in the university because of the lecturers do not believe that they could make it.

Nonverbal Racism

Wigham & Chanier (2013) stated that user-generated nonverbal act involves a user consciously selecting an act of racism and deliberately performing this act. Computer-generated acts, however, are predefined in the system and the user does not deliberately choose to display these. In our methodological framework, They prefer to sub-divide the categories of nonverbal racism by communicative act rather than with reference to how people are encoded by the user and synthetic world. Wigham & Chanier (2013) will refer to the modalities of proxemics, kinesics and avatar appearance.

This statement refers to the actions that have been done by the people in discriminating other people. According to Wigham & Chanier (2013), kinesics is included in nonverbal racism. The kinesics or physically actions in discriminating people using violence to show the discriminate people. People may hit, kick or any kind of physical activity that may hurt other people. In Race movie, discrimination is not only done by the people in the form of verbal communication, but also in nonverbal racism.

Discrimination

In the context of intergroup relations, discrimination has a pejorative meaning. It implies more than simply distinguishing among social objects, but refers also to inappropriate and potentially unfair treatment of individuals due to group membership.  Discrimination may involve actively negative behavior toward a member of a group or,  more subtly, less positive responses than those toward an ingroup member in comparable circumstances. According to Allport in (John, Miles, Peter & Victoria, 2008),  discrimination involves denying ‘individuals or groups of people equality of treatment which they may wish’. (John, Miles, Peter & Victoria, 2008),  defined discrimination as ‘those actions designed to maintain own-group characteristics and favored position at the expense of the comparison group’.

Discrimination is generally understood as biased behavior, which includes not only actions that directly harm or disadvantage another group, but those that unfairly favor one’s own group (creating a relative disadvantage for other groups). Allport in (John, Miles, Peter & Victoria, 2008),  argued that ingroup favoritism plays a fundamental role in intergroup relations, taking psychological precedence over outgroup antipathy.  He noted that ‘in-groups are psychologically primary. We live in them, and sometimes,  for them’ and proposed that ‘there is a good reason to believe that this love-prejudice is far more basic to human life than is hate-prejudice. When a person is defending a categorical value of his own, he may do so at the expense of other people’s interests or safety. Hate prejudice springs from a reciprocal love prejudice underneath’.

Whereas discrimination can occur toward a specific member of a group or the group as a whole, stereotypes and prejudice are intrapsychic phenomena. That is, they occur within an individual and may vary not only in their transparency to others but also in the level of awareness of the person who harbors stereotypes and prejudice. Traditionally, stereotypes and prejudice have been conceived as explicit responses – beliefs and attitudes people know they hold, subject to deliberate (often strategic) control in their expression (Fazio,  Jackson, Dunton,  in John, Miles, Peter & Victoria 2008). In contrast to these explicit, conscious, and deliberative processes, implicit prejudices and stereotypes involve a lack of awareness and unintentional activation. The mere presence of the attitude object may activate the associated stereotype and attitude automatically and without the perceiver noticing.

Although implicit attitudes and stereotype measures are now commonly used (Fazio & Olson, 2003), researchers continue to debate their psychological meaning. Some contend that implicit measures of bias primarily represent overlearned and ‘habitual’ cultural associations rather than attitudes (Karpinski & Hilton, 2001). Others argue that implicit and explicit measures assess a single attitude measured at different points in the process of expression, with social desirability concerns more strongly shaping overt expressions  (Fazio,  Jackson, Dunton,  in John, Miles, Peter & Victoria 2008). And still others consider implicit and explicit measures to reflect different components of a system of dual attitudes, with implicit responses often representing ‘older’ attitudes and stereotypes that have been ‘overwritten’ by newer, explicit forms of bias or incompletely replaced by individuals who strive for egalitarian beliefs (Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000), or reflecting different aspects of attitudes, such as effective and cognitive components (Rudman, 2004). Nevertheless,  there is a consensus that implicit manifestations of attitudes and stereotypes exist and reliably predict some behaviors, often independently from explicit attitudes and stereotypes. We purposefully avoided reference to intentionality or personal endorsement in our working definitions of prejudice and stereotypes to accommodate implicit biases.

The difference between racism and discrimination is that racism is more of a thought process and discrimination is an action to take. Discrimination is the product of racism, therefore they could be used interchangeably.